Glossaire
Glossaire de l'eau
Le langage du traitement de l'eau, expliqué
Algae in Pool
Algae growth in swimming pools typically appears as cloudy pool water and green spots on the wall and bottom of pools. There are two main approaches to prevent and treat it: chemical treatment (primarily chlorine-based methods, including shock chlorination for severe cases) and non-chemical alternatives. Chemical treatment can cause eye irritation and skin sensitivity from excess chlorine. Maintenance strategies include mechanical removal of debris with nets, automated cleaning robots for pool bottoms, and regular filter cleaning to maintain water circulation. It is important to keep pH levels stable between 7 and 7.5, as external factors like rain and leaves can alter pH values. Merus Rings are offered as a chemical-free solution that prevents biofilm formation on pool walls and plumbing, which reduces algae proliferation. The underlying principle is that without a biofilm on the pool walls or in the plumbing, algae proliferation in the pool is much lower, allowing dead algae to sink and be collected by filtration systems or cleaning robots.
Algae in cooling water
Algae growth in cooling water indicates suitable conditions for microbiological expansion, with sufficient nutrients and heat available. Algae spread throughout the system from cooling towers through pipes to heat exchangers, forming biofilm at low-flow points. This biofilm serves as a breeding ground and food source for Legionella and other bacteria. According to regulations (VDI 2047 part 2), biocide shock dosing should be performed when bacterial counts reach 1000 CFU/100ml, though this can be expensive for larger cooling towers. Rather than treating symptoms, prevention focuses on addressing root causes. Merus technology reduces algae reproduction; algae treated with Merus rings reproduce less quickly and turn brown faster, collecting at the tower sump. With reduced algae populations, biofilm receives less nutriment, weakens gradually, and dissolves. Without biofilm present, Legionella reproduction becomes significantly more difficult.
BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand
The biological oxygen demand (BOD), also called biochemical oxygen demand, refers to the amount of oxygen required for the biotic degradation of organic matter in bodies of water. It serves as a pollution parameter to assess the quality of effluent or wastewater. Untreated wastewater typically has high oxygen demand. The decomposition of organic substrates is carried out by microorganisms, primarily aerobic bacteria that consume dissolved oxygen to produce energy. When substantial organic material is present, the oxygen demand increases correspondingly, potentially depleting oxygen needed by plants and animals in the water. Authorities regulate BOD levels to protect public health and water quality. High BOD can indicate fecal contamination or organic carbon from various sources, which may affect human health and industrial operations. BOD is measured through standardized empirical methods: samples are kept at 20 degrees C in darkness for five days, then oxygen content is measured and compared to original values. For high BOD situations, samples may be diluted to prevent oxygen depletion during testing. Drinking water should have a BOD well below 1 mg/l after five days, while acceptable wastewater from treatment plants should have approximately 20 mg/l. Because these are empirical tests, BOD gives no absolute results but provides good comparative data among samples, though it cannot detect anaerobic bacteria like sulfur-reducing bacteria.
CFU - Colony Forming Units
CFU (Colony Forming Units) is a term from microbiology that indicates the amount of living microorganisms in a liquid. This number, determined by counting individual colonies, describes the number of organism cells in water that are able to multiply. The organisms are bacteria or fungi living and multiplying in water. Colony forming units are important in microbiology to observe cell culture development and to determine microorganism quantities in drinking water or river water. For CFU measurement, a period of time must be considered since a single bacterium can quickly become an entire colony. This helps determine how quickly bacteria develop and what danger the water poses when consumed. To ensure comparability between different analyses, CFU results are always referred to as colony forming units per 100 ml. The standard of keeping bacteria in water at less than 100 CFU/ml in drinking water was introduced following an 1892 cholera outbreak in Hamburg, Germany, investigated by Robert Koch. This standard remains used worldwide today. Bacteria or fungi in drinking water can endanger consumer health, so drinking water is strictly monitored through regulations at national or European levels, with corresponding limit values described for each water type. In the United States, this is regulated by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The World Health Organization recommends the same limit values for CFU in its drinking water safety recommendations. Water samples are placed in petri dishes and kept at defined temperatures, allowing microbes to breed. Colonies are counted manually by certified laboratories, typically under magnification. Results are expressed in CFU/ml. For drinking water, the upper limit is 100 CFU/100 ml; cooling water should not exceed 10,000 CFU/100 ml.
CO2 Footprint
The CO2 Footprint, specifically referred to as Product Carbon Footprint (PCF), encompasses the CO2 emissions generated throughout the entire product lifecycle. This includes raw material extraction, production processes, as well as recycling and waste management. Merus calculated its first CO2 balance for 2019 in accordance with international standards, utilizing data from the International Energy Agency (IEA) and Ecoinvent databases, with support from First Climate, an organization specializing in climate-friendly business practices.
Closed cooling water system
A closed cooling water system is a type of cooling system where water is circulated by a pump through a pipe system to remove heat from consumers like heat exchangers or machines. Unlike open cooling water systems, the cooling water in a closed loop is cooled by a cooling system such as a chiller or heat exchanger, rather than being exposed to the atmosphere. Closed loops are chosen when either the required cooling water temperature is so low that it would be impractical to produce with an open system, or when the consumer of the cooling water is too valuable or critical for a process to risk fouling or blockage from uncertain water quality. In a closed cooling system, the same water circulates continuously and is purified mechanically and through water treatment before entering the cooling system. The main challenge in closed loop systems is corrosion. When water is always in motion, corrosion problems are minimized, but when the loop branches into sub-loops with reduced flow, corrosion can start. Rust particles transported through the system can settle and block narrow channels, reducing cooling efficiency. Water quality monitoring, including iron content measurement, is essential for maintaining system performance.
Convert units - temperatures, pressure, hardness
A conversion tool for various measurement units used in water treatment and industrial applications. The page allows users to convert values across multiple unit systems by entering a value and selecting its measurement unit, with converted results displayed automatically. Specific converters are provided for: water hardness (German Degrees, French Degrees, English Degrees, grains per gallon, ppm, mmol/l), temperature (Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit), pressure (Bar, Atmosphere, Pascal, mmHg, kg/cm2, pound per square inch), volume (gallons, barrels, liters), MPY (mils per year), flow rate (with volume flow and velocity calculations based on pipe diameter), and delta temperatures (temperature differences across three unit systems).
Corrosion Control Water Treatment
Corrosion control water treatment is an approach addressing rust and corrosion in metallic pipes and systems. Corrosion occurs when pipe metal reacts with oxygen in water, particularly in systems with stagnant or low-mineral water. Signs include brown discoloration or turbidity in water. The Merus physical water treatment technology uses oscillations to affect water and its components, enabling existing corrosive particles to be cleaned from pipe surfaces. The treated water holds more dissolved oxygen, preventing it from settling on pipe surfaces and disrupting oxidation processes. This chemical-free method protects pipes and machines from rust damage without requiring service or adding chemicals, offering both economic and ecological benefits.
Corrosion in Copper Pipes
Copper pipes are commonly used in modern properties and can be an ideal solution when water properties align with the material. However, corrosion becomes problematic under specific conditions. Key preconditions for copper corrosion include soft water with insufficient limescale to form a protective calcium carbonate layer, pH values that are too high or low, stagnant water where oxygen reacts with copper to form copper oxide, and foreign metal particles that create galvanic corrosion. Prevention strategies using Merus Technology involve installing a Merus Ring at the main water inlet to decompose existing limescale incrustations, keep oxygen dissolved to reduce corrosion in stagnant water, and alter chemical conditions in soft water to prevent corrosion. The technology works by changing pipe conditions to interfere with chemical processes and form a thin protective layer along pipe walls. A particle filter at the main inlet may also be recommended to prevent metal particles from entering the system. The effects become visible through changes in water color and limescale deposits in fixtures.
Cycles of Concentration in Cooling Water (COC)
COC is an abbreviation specifying how often fresh water added to a cooling loop can be circulated before requiring blowdown or bleed-off from the cooling tower. In open cooling water systems with cooling towers and heat exchangers, water circulates continuously. As the cooling tower cools water through evaporation, only water evaporates; minerals remain and concentrate over time, causing scaling or fouling. To manage mineral buildup, concentrated cooling water is periodically drained and replaced with mineral-poor feed water through blowdown or bleed-off processes. COC represents the relation between the concentration of minerals in the feed water and the cooling water. For example, if feed water contains 100 TDS (total dissolved solids) and cooling water contains 400 TDS, the COC is 4. Higher COC values require less fresh water replacement.
Green Water Treatment Solutions
Green water treatment means respecting the environment and providing an economically friendly solution for water treatment. Merus defines this approach as treating water without adding or subtracting something. The company offers pollution-free systems designed to address common issues like water clogging, limescale formation, and corrosion in both residential and commercial properties. Their solution, the Merus Ring, works to resolve these problems while maintaining environmental responsibility and avoiding hazardous pollutants.
Heat Transfer Coefficient
The heat transfer coefficient (alpha) is a calculated value used to assess the condition inside a heat exchanger. It measures the efficiency of heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface. To calculate the heat transfer coefficient, the following formula is used: Q = alpha x A x (T2 - T1) x Delta t where alpha represents the heat transfer coefficient, A is the heat transfer surface area, (T2 - T1) is the temperature difference, and Delta t is the examined time frame. Alternatively, using accessible temperature and volume flow values, a qualitative heat transfer coefficient (alpha m) can be determined using inlet and outlet temperatures and volume flow rates. Key characteristics include: the heat transfer coefficient depends only on the fluid, its movement and the surface of the solid body, however not on the material of the solid body. It is a process value rather than a material property. For example, when water remains still in tubes, possible heat transfer ranges from 350-500 W/(m2K), but when water flows, it can reach 350-2100 W/(m2K). Fouling, the accumulation of deposits like dirt, limescale, rust, or biomass, acts as insulation and reduces heat transfer efficiency. Clean heat exchanger surfaces are essential for maintaining optimal heat transfer performance.
Kelvin Fahrenheit Celsius
A temperature conversion tool that allows conversion between three temperature units: Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit. The page provides the following conversion formulas: - (deg Kelvin - 273.15) x 9/5 + 32 = degF - deg K - 273.15 = degC - (deg Celsius x 9/5) + 32 = degF Users can enter a value in any of the three temperature fields and press the corresponding button to receive conversions showing all three temperature units simultaneously.
Legionella in cooling tower
Since 2018, operators of evaporative cooling systems, cooling towers and scrubbers must have their cooling water regularly checked for microbiological impurities such as legionella or bacteria. This regulation was adopted after cases in the USA where people became infected with Legionella from cooling towers. Legionella are aerobic bacteria transmitted by water droplets. Under certain weather conditions, evaporation fumes from cooling towers remain close to the ground rather than rising, enabling infection transmission. In Europe, regulations require own checks every 14 days and certified laboratory tests every 3 months. Limit values are 100, 1,000 and 10,000 CFU/100ml. If the highest stage exceeds 10,000 CFU, shock flushing with biocide must be performed. The primary challenge in controlling legionella involves catching all bacteria. Biofilms serve as breeding grounds, and if biofilm isn't completely removed during treatment, bacteria regrow quickly. Traditional methods like biocides, heat sanitation, and UV systems only affect bacteria they directly contact, failing to reach protected bacteria within biofilm layers in dead pipes. Merus technology addresses this limitation by reaching dead legs in pipes and machines through oscillations that move faster than water flow itself, removing biofilm from non-flowing pipe sections without requiring physical opening. This eliminates breeding grounds, reducing legionella below required thresholds and potentially allowing operators to reduce or eliminate biocides and thermal treatments.
Limescale Protection in pipes and machines
Limescale protection involves preventing mineral deposits, primarily calcium carbonate, from accumulating in pipes and industrial equipment. When dissolved minerals in water precipitate due to temperature changes, they form deposits called scaling that reduce heat transfer efficiency, increase energy costs, and require extensive cleaning efforts. Traditional approaches use water softeners or chemical treatment, which are expensive and problematic for large-scale applications like seawater cooling. Merus Rings offer an alternative solution that keeps the limescale under control without requiring extensive chemical treatment. This approach prevents technical problems from mineral deposits while maintaining proper cooling and heating performance, reducing corrosion-related leaks, and minimizing visible stains in residential and commercial settings. The technology has been implemented across thousands of industrial installations and over 15,000 private homes, reportedly reducing chemical treatment needs by approximately 50% in some cases.
Magnetite forming in iron pipes
Magnetite (Fe3O4) is an iron oxide that forms on the inner surfaces of iron or steel water pipes, typically when corrosion is stopped or reduced and rust is removed from the system. The formation occurs in oxygen-deficient water conditions where incomplete oxidation prevents the formation of standard rust (Fe2O3). Once formed, the resulting black magnetite layer acts as a protective barrier, making the pipe inert against new corrosion and providing passivation-like protection. This layer remains stable even against microbiologically induced corrosion. However, when exposed to atmospheric oxygen after water drainage, the magnetite converts back to standard rust. The process can be reactivated by returning water to a system equipped with corrosion control technology. Because of its distinctive dark color, magnetite formation serves as a visible indicator of successful corrosion treatment in water systems.
Marine growth, Seashells, Mussels, Barnacles
Marine growth refers to the settlement and accumulation of mussels, seashells, and barnacles on inner pipe surfaces when seawater is used for drinking water production or cooling purposes. This phenomenon occurs when larval organisms pass through filters and settle in low-flow areas or favorable conditions within piping systems. As these organisms grow, they create increasingly thick shell layers that accumulate at narrow points, particularly at heat exchanger inlets, significantly reducing water flow and heat exchanger capacity. The Merus technology addresses marine growth through two mechanisms: first, by maintaining clean, smooth pipe surfaces through treatment that prevents incrustation and corrosion, eliminating settlement sites for larvae; and second, by creating a stable film of pure water at the surface that reduces friction and prevents larvae from gaining sufficient grip to settle and grow. This chemical-free approach proves environmentally preferable to traditional biocide treatments like chlorine, which are increasingly restricted by environmental regulations and can harm marine ecosystems.
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion - MIC
Microbiological Influenced Corrosion (MIC) describes the corrosion of surfaces caused by microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, yeasts and algae, also called biocorrosion. Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria found in installation fluids produce acids or sulfuric acid salts as metabolic waste products, causing corrosion on pipe interiors and metallic surfaces. This can result in pitting or leaks, reducing component service life. The problem intensifies when bacteria form biofilms that settle permanently rather than flowing away with liquid. These biofilms create protective habitats where acids concentrate at specific points, causing localized pipe damage. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (desulfurizers) are among the most problematic organisms, converting sulfate to hydrogen sulfide. Treatment involves removing biofilms and microorganisms from pipes to resolve corrosion issues and prevent further deterioration.
Mils per Year - MPY - Corrosion Rate
MPY is used to measure the corrosion rate in pipes, pipe systems, or other metallic surfaces by calculating material loss or weight loss of metal surfaces. Based on the type of metal, sample area size, and exposure time, MPY provides a corrosion rate value. One mil equals 0.001 inch or 0.0254 mm in metric terms. In open water systems, a corrosion rate around 1 MPY is normal; rates around 10 MPY warrant action, while 20 MPY and above indicate serious concern as corrosion progresses rapidly. For example, a 24-inch pipeline with 10 MPY corrosion results in nearly half a cubic meter of material loss per kilometer. Pitting corrosion can reach approximately 1000 MPY, which is particularly dangerous as it can rapidly create holes in pipes. MPY calculations are critical for determining pipe lifetime, especially in high-pressure applications like gas pipelines.
Open Cooling Water System
An open cooling water system is a cooling mechanism that is open to the environment and ambient atmosphere. In these systems, cooling water circulates between a point of use where it is heated by a process and a cooling tower where it cools down through evaporation. Fresh water is constantly added to replace evaporated or drifted water, allowing the cooling water to be recirculated multiple times. Open cooling systems differ from closed systems in that the water makes contact with the environment. Due to evaporation, mineral concentration increases over time, requiring regular blowdown or bleed-off procedures to drain concentrated water and replace it with fresh water containing lower concentrations of foreign particles. These systems may face challenges including higher total dissolved solids (TDS) from various water sources, microbiological contamination, algae growth, and biofouling. Water treatment becomes necessary to prevent or solve problems caused by corrosion, deposits, and fouling. Treatment can target specific components like cooling towers or heat exchangers, or address the entire cooling loop system depending on the nature and scope of the problem.
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion occurs when pits form on the inside of pipes or machines due to corrosion. It typically results from galvanic corrosion, which happens when two different metals and water come together as electrolytes. This creates an electrochemical reaction similar to a battery, where electrons flow from the base metal to the noble metal, producing small pits. The process often begins when impurities such as iron particles enter a water system and meet nobler metals like copper alloys or stainless steel. These particles form many small galvanic elements in localized areas, immediately triggering corrosion. Over time, pitting builds up a pit that eats through the pipe, eventually creating leaks and holes that require repair or replacement. The decisive factor in pitting is the potential difference between the pipe material and foreign particles, not the pipe material itself. Classical corrosion prevention methods like corrosion inhibitors and cathodic protection are often ineffective because chemicals cannot reach the corrosion pit. Prevention strategies include installing dirt filters at water inlets and using technologies like the Merus Ring, which forms a protective oxide film (magnetite) on metal surfaces to increase corrosion resistance and reduce pitting frequency by over 90%.
Pressure Difference - Delta P
Delta P, also called pressure difference or differential pressure, typically refers to the drop of pressure in a piping system, heat exchanger, or other machine where liquid passes through. The delta symbol represents the mathematical difference between two values. Delta P stands for the difference between two measured pressure values, which can be measured at different times to track trends, or at different positions in a system (such as comparing inlet versus outlet pressure). Measurement is accomplished using either an analog pressure gauge or electrical sensor connected to a central data system. In piping systems or heat exchangers with moving fluid, pressure typically drops due to friction between the water and contacting surfaces like pipe walls. Higher pressure differences suggest increased fouling in the system. As incrustations accumulate, from limescale, suspended solids, biological growth, or other deposits, the pressure drop increases. The deposits build up in pipes and interfere with water flow, making Delta P useful for measuring flow resistance and calculating deposit amounts. The equation for pressure difference is: Delta P = P2 - P1, where P2 is outlet pressure and P1 is inlet pressure. High deposit concentrations lead to high pressure drops because water cannot flow freely, resulting in much lower outlet pressure than inlet pressure. Performance monitoring applications use Delta P measurements, which should decrease to design levels following system treatment installations.
SRB - Sulfur Reducing Bacteria
Sulfur reducing bacteria are anaerobic microorganisms found in seawater, produced water from oil and gas wells, and sometimes in well water. These organisms originate from hydrothermal vents and are estimated to have existed on Earth for over 3 billion years. They are highly resistant due to their origins in extreme environments like black smokers, where water temperatures reach up to 500 degrees C. In industrial systems, SRB are problematic because they are anaerobic bacteria, meaning they do not require oxygen to exist and multiply, and they feed on sulfur. They cause microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC) by reducing sulfur in steel structures and producing hydrogen sulfide or sulfuric acid, which weakens metal and causes pitting. SRB thrive in biofilm environments. Merus Rings help control SRB corrosion by removing biofilm, which reduces bacterial settlement and makes remaining organisms less dangerous as they flow away with the liquid.
Soft water
Soft water contains hardly any minerals or none at all. Calcium and magnesium react with dissolved CO2 to form carbonates that create lime, making water hard. Rainwater is typically soft water. Distilled water, produced through evaporation, is very soft with a hardness of zero and neutral pH of 7. By German standards, water hardness of 0-7 degdH qualifies as hardness grade 1 and is considered soft water. Soft water has lower surface tension than hard water, allowing soap and detergent to foam better and enabling water to better penetrate materials. Tea and coffee taste more intense in soft water since it absorbs flavors more effectively. However, water that is too soft can cause corrosion or pitting in pipes, as distilled water seeks minerals from metallic pipes like copper, potentially causing damage.
Solubility in water increased
Water naturally dissolves many elements, substances, and gases, a property used throughout nature and industry. Physical limits constrain how much can dissolve; saturation occurs when water's capacity is reached. Temperature significantly affects solubility, with different substances responding variably to heat changes. Merus technology increases solubility of substances in water and other liquids. By enhancing water's solution capacity, it can dissolve more calcium carbonates, breaking down scale and limescale in pipes and machines even at extremely high temperatures. Practical applications include: farmers requiring less pesticide and fertilizer for equivalent results; aquacultures dissolving up to 15% more oxygen in the water; swimming pools reducing chlorine dosage by half; and oil industry measurements showing increased paraffin wax dissolution through pipelines. The mechanism works across diverse industries and temperature ranges, including conditions exceeding 400 degrees C in oil and gas operations.
Steam generator and steam boiler
Steam generators vary widely in industrial applications, from massive units in power plants to smaller boilers in spas and saunas. These machines operate at extremely high pressures and temperatures exceeding 150 degrees C, requiring substantial energy input. While chemical conditioning of water helps prevent deposit formation, scaling and corrosion remain persistent challenges. Deposits act as insulators, increasing energy requirements for heating water. The Merus Ring addresses these issues through two primary mechanisms. When installed in the supply line, it reduces or eliminates corrosion, measurable through iron content analysis in blowdown water. For systems without chemical treatment due to cost constraints, the device prevents limescale accumulation, particularly effective with feed water having less than 1,000 TDS. When combined with existing chemical treatment, significant chemical savings become achievable. Systems with automatic desludging devices experience minimal deposit buildup, with remaining lime becoming soft and easily removable. Continuous monitoring and local regulatory consultation remain essential when deploying this technology on steam boilers.
Struvite - Urine Stone
Struvite, with the chemical formula (NH4)MgPO4.6H2O, is a soluble compound in water that forms crystals when precipitating. It is also known as urine stone and can accumulate in plumbing systems, particularly in urinals and sewage treatment pipes, where it creates hard deposits that are difficult to remove. The substance can be particularly problematic in wastewater treatment facilities where struvite is regularly clogging the pipe at the end of the separation process. Additionally, approximately 10% of kidney stones contain struvite. Merus rings are reported to increase the solubility of struvite and urine stone by slowing or stopping new struvite formation in both industrial and residential water systems.
Sustainable Water Treatment
Sustainable water treatment is a principle focused on providing water treatment systems that avoid chemicals, minimize energy consumption, and use minimal raw materials while achieving optimal results for customers and the environment. The philosophy centers on respecting both people and nature. The Merus approach exemplifies this through their ring technology, which influences treated water minimally; nothing is added or removed, leaving water chemically unchanged. Unlike traditional methods such as water softeners that add salt remaining in water systems, Merus Rings function as carriers of effect oscillations without requiring electricity or internal wear parts. The aluminum rings are reusable and require energy only during initial production, demonstrating sustainable principles through minimal resource consumption and environmental impact. The concept is illustrated through historical examples: the 3-generation tree-planting model from 17th-century Germany, where grandfather plants, father maintains, and son harvests; and Europe's river cleanup initiatives in the 1960s-70s, where reduced pollution and improved water treatment restored fish populations and made swimming safe again, demonstrating that sustainable practices restore environmental health across generations.
TDS - Total Dissolved Solids
TDS or Total Dissolved Solids is a value used to evaluate water quality, describing the total amount of all inorganic and organic substances dissolved in water. It is measured in micrograms per liter or PPM (parts per million), where 1 ppm equals 1 microgram per liter. Common minerals affecting TDS include calcium, magnesium, nitrates, and chlorides. TDS varies significantly by water type: distilled or reverse osmosis water has near-zero TDS; tap water in North America with TDS below 500 ppm is considered good drinking water; mineral water typically contains 500 ppm or more; hard water begins at 1000 PPM; seawater reaches 40,000 ppm or higher due to sodium content; and wastewater can exceed 100,000 ppm. TDS meters measure electrical conductivity in Microsiemens by applying a small voltage between two anodes in a water sample, calculating conductivity based on resistance. However, TDS alone does not indicate actual water quality; it is primarily a parameter for predicting water behavior in technical environments, such as when drinking water is heated. Calcium and magnesium tend to precipitate and form scale in pipes and machines. Scale formation depends on both TDS levels and pH, with scaling more likely at pH 7 or higher. Practically, TDS monitoring helps assess drinking and cooling water quality, determine when system blow-down is needed, and evaluate filtering system efficiency by comparing TDS values before and after treatment units.
TOC - Total Organic Carbon
Total organic carbon (TOC) is a key parameter for measuring the organic load in water. It functions as a faster and more accurate alternative to COD or BOD testing methods. The measurement process involves oxidizing a water sample at temperatures exceeding 1000 degrees C, which converts organic carbon into CO2. Sensors then detect the CO2 concentration, with results expressed in mg/l. Modern automated TOC analyzers streamline the entire process, from sample collection through oxidation to CO2 analysis, typically producing results within minutes. This automation enables continuous monitoring of drinking water and process water quality, allowing complete oversight of production processes.
Temperature Difference - Delta T
Delta T is the difference of temperatures between two measuring points, differing either in time and/or position. The symbol is the Greek capital letter delta, used mathematically to describe the difference of any changeable quantity. In processes, Delta T shows the difference between two measured temperatures. The equation is: Delta T = T2 - T1 Applications include measuring heat exchanger efficiency, checking heating or cooling system performance, and monitoring building climate control by comparing supply and return water temperatures. When monitoring a heat exchanger over time, delta T changes indicate the degree of fouling present. Combined with flow rate data, delta T enables calculation of the Heat Transfer Coefficient. Unit conversions (without adding or subtracting 32): Delta T degF = Delta T degC x 9/5 and Delta T degC = Delta T degF x 5/9
Water Filters
A water filter is a mechanical device used to remove foreign substances from water. It functions like a sieve with holes of varying sizes. In some cases, only solids are filtered out, meaning dissolved substances remain in the water. When a membrane filter is used (such as for reverse osmosis), dissolved particles are also removed, resulting in fresh water. Water filters are a significant component of physical water treatment. In contaminated water situations, filtering may be necessary before applying other water treatment methods. Filters can also complement water treatment processes; for example, a Merus Ring can dissolve existing deposits from pipes and the filter removes them from the water, which is useful in closed cooling loops. Filters are also used in private homes directly at tapping points to remove impurities from building plumbing systems. An important consideration is that filters require regular cleaning or replacement; otherwise, they may block water flow.
Water Softener Alternatives
Water softener alternatives refer to non-chemical water treatment solutions that achieve similar results to traditional ion exchange softeners without the associated environmental and maintenance costs. The Merus Ring is presented as such an alternative, a non-chemical water conditioner that changes water's surface tension to provide the sensation of softer water while preventing limescale deposits in pipes and machines. Unlike conventional softeners that exchange calcium and magnesium ions for sodium ions through resin that requires salt regeneration, the Merus Ring requires no electricity, salt, or plumbing installation. It eliminates the need to purchase and carry salt while avoiding the production of waste water during regeneration. The approach maintains the chemical composition of water while reducing hard water problems in appliances and pipes, making it more eco friendly, and comes at a much lower cost than other devices. This method is particularly valuable in water-scarce regions where even minor water savings become economically significant.
What causes Fouling?
Fouling stands in technical applications for the unwanted growth or formation of deposits on surfaces occurring inside pipes, machines or heat exchangers. Substances responsible for fouling may already be dissolved in liquids, such as calcium carbonate and salts in water, or paraffin in crude oil, or solids may be introduced from outside sources like sand, mud, or organic material, particularly when using well water or water from lakes or the sea. When fouling is present, corrosion can arise as a side effect. Pipes and systems become covered with deposits over time, reducing pipe cross-section and impeding flow and heat transfer. Mineral fouling creates hard crusts of lime or similar deposits, while organic material forms biofilm leading to biofouling, barnacles, or mussels in seawater. Corrosion occurs because deposits often contain stagnant water causing outgassing-related corrosion, or in biofouling cases, organisms responsible for microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC).
What is hard water or water hardness?
Water hardness indicates the concentration of dissolved foreign substances in water, particularly calcium and magnesium. In Germany, it is measured in degdH (degrees of German hardness), while North America uses grains per gallon or ppm. Tap water typically ranges from 6-15 grains per gallon (soft to moderate hardness), though well water in farming regions can exceed 25 grains per gallon or even reach over 100 grains. Water hardness develops as rainwater passes through different soil and rock layers, absorbing water-soluble substances. In regions with limestone or gypsum-based ground, tap water becomes particularly hard and prone to limescale buildup in pipes and machines. The minerals in hard water, magnesium and calcium, are important for human health and are not harmful when consumed. However, under certain conditions these substances can precipitate out, forming visible limescale in kettles and on fixtures, or invisibly settling in pipes. This can reduce water pressure, diminish heating efficiency, and block valves or pipe sections. Appliances using heated water, such as washing machines, dishwashers, and coffee makers, are particularly susceptible to calcification. Water hardness information can typically be obtained from municipal utilities. Test strips are also available for determining hardness, particularly useful for private well owners.
pH - Value
The pH value is a dimensionless measure of the acid, neutral or basic character of an aqueous solution. It measures the activity of hydrogen ions on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A pH value of 7 is considered neutral, representing the pH of distilled pure water without dissolved CO2. Values smaller than 7 are acidic, while values greater than 7 are alkaline. For drinking water, authorities stipulate a pH range of not less than 6.5 and not more than 9.5. Waterworks often add lime slurry to raw water to achieve a pH close to neutral. Examples of pH values include: vinegar (2.0), sulfuric acid (2.75), acid rain (5.0), human urine (6.0), milk (6.4), pure water (7.0), blood (7.4), soap (10.0), bleach (12.5), and caustic soda (14.0). These are average values that may vary; for instance, human urine pH depends on diet, medications, and health conditions, ranging from 5.0 to 8.5.
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